The truth about the microbiome: what's real and what isn't? What’s really happening with those microbes inside us? Are we really superorganisms or is it all hype? Dr Berenice Langdon reveals the truth about the Microbiome. OUPblog - Academic insights ...
What’s really happening with those microbes inside us? Are we really superorganisms or is it all hype? Dr Berenice Langdon reveals the truth about the microbiome.
Does ‘microbiome’ mean our friendly gut bacteria?
Yes, sort of. Many people are aware that the term ‘microbiome’ refers to ‘friendly gut bacteria’. But ‘microbiome’ also refers to all the microbes or germs inside us. These are mainly bacteria – but they also include fungi, viruses, and many others. The word ‘microbiome’ also refers to where these microbes are: the ‘biome’ part of the word. They couldbe in our gut, or on our skin but a microbiome can also refer to much bigger locations outside the body: the microbiome of a forest, even an ocean.
And going back to the human gut; are these microbes friendly? Well, some are and some aren’t. Like all best buddies, sometimes even the ‘friendly’ ones can be awkward sometimes.
Is it true that our microbiome helps protect us from infections?
We know that if we take antibiotics, they can reduce our gut microbiome, and we can get a diarrhoea infection moving into our gut. On the other hand, we know that the microbiome is mainly made up of bacteria, and bacteria often cause infections. So does our microbiome protect us from infections, or does it cause infections?
The answer is a little bit of both. Our gut microbiome is usually made up of benign bacteria, the sort that don’t cause us harm. These benign bacteria keep the ‘baddy bacteria’, the pathogens, out of the gut. They do this either by outcompeting the bad bacteria, or by making the gut a bit too acidic for the bad bacteria to grow. In this way we can see that the gut microbiome is helping us, just a bit, to avoid gastrointestinal infections.
On the other hand, if our ‘friendly’ gut bacteria happen to get out of our guts and into the wrong place—like our blood stream or our brain—even though these bacteria are generally benign and friendly, they can cause a very serious infection.
Is it true that probiotics are live microorganisms that improve our health?
We know that probiotics are live microorganisms. This is part of their definition, and the idea is that taking them is meant to improve our health in some way. It’s the ‘improve our health’ part that’s difficult to prove.
Scientists have been testing probiotics for decades to determine if they have an effect on our health. They’ve tested their effect on all sorts of medical conditions, including constipation, diarrhoea, ulcerative colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome, as well as other non-gut related conditions such as Parkinson’s and autism. So far, however, there’s no evidence to show that probiotics help any of these conditions. The American Gastroenterological Society mainly does not recommend taking probiotics except as part of a research trial.
Many probiotics currently on the market contain bacteria that are found in our food anyway (in yoghurt, for example), or in fact, are already inside us. Some probiotic packaging even says so itself: contains live microorganisms that naturally exist in the body.
If probiotics don’t do much, are they at least safe? The answer for most people is: yes, probably. The bacteria that make up probiotics are usually fairly benign and don’t usually try and attack us.
But for people who are very ill or in intensive care, probiotics are not recommended. Research shows that probiotics can translocate from the gut to the blood stream. Once in the wrong place—just like the microbes in our gut microbiome—probiotics can cause life threatening infections or even death.
Is it true that a microbiome is essential for survival?
Amazingly, the microbiome is not essential for survival for all sorts of animals including rats, mice, guinea pigs, chickens, flies, and even fish. All of these creatures have been successfully raised without a microbiome. Even more amazingly, this isn’t new. Scientists have been doing this for over a hundred years. It’s absolutely possible for certain animals to survive just fine without a microbiome, and even have babies. This is a fascinating field of research, and these animals are sometimes known as gnotobiotic animals or germ-free animals.
However, it is true that herbivores can’t survive without a microbiome. They are dependent on gut microbes to help them ferment grass or foliage and extract the necessary calories. Herbivores really couldn’t survive without a microbiome.
Is it true that fermented foods and drinks are healthy?
We know that not all fermented foods and drinks are healthy and interestingly, not all fermented foods and drinks have microbes in their final product. Alcohol is an obvious example of this; a fermented drink with known health risks and also one in which the final product contains no microbes whatsoever. Other popular fermented products such as soy sauce are full of salt and are also clearly not universally healthy, while the acid contained in the very popular fermented product cider vinegar can dissolve our teeth and is a known cause of oesophagitis.
However, we still love fermented foods. Fermentation often makes foods taste great and helps us preserve our food. So, while there are certain benefits to fermented food and drink in terms of food production and preservation, overall fermentation doesn’t automatically make foods healthy.
Is it true that we need to pay attention to our diets to improve our microbiomes?
We should of course pay attention to our diet, by not eating too much, having a varied diet and including plenty of fibre, as this is the route to good health. But from a microbiome point of view, the bacteria in our guts don’t need much help.
Our colon typically contains a quadrillion bacteria per ml or 1,000,000,000,000 – a mind-blowingly large number. We also have a wide variety of bacteria inside us, constantly changing minute by minute. We obtain these effortlessly from the bacteria that coat the outside of our foods – even those foods we think of as ‘clean’ like bread and fruit as well as the bacteria naturally found within certain fermented foods mentioned above.
A wide variety of bacteria in our gut is regarded by some as a mark of health and is easily achieved by eating a wide variety of foods and by daily contact with each other, with the outside world, and with nature.
Is it true that together with our microbiomes we are superorganisms?
No, this is not true. Together with our microbiomes we are not superorganisms. While microbes do help us a bit—helping us digest a little bit more food, avoiding certain infections—they also cause us a lot of work, as we have to protect ourselves from them and avoid infections. It is not a universally positive relationship.
But ultimately, we are not superorganisms simply because we do not evolve as one unit. Microbes evolve inside us at a vastly faster rate than we do. And we evolve slowly, evolving protective mechanisms against the microbes, but making use of them when we can.
In a 2011 speech about shared decision making in healthcare, the UK Secretary of State, Andrew Lansley, coined the phrase “nothing about me, without me”. Used at the time to summarise efforts to empower patients in decisions about their care, the phrase has since been borrowed by advocates and activists on a range of social justice topics.
This year’s Open Access Week poses the question: “How, in a time of disruption, can communities reassert control over the knowledge they produce?” Here at OUP, we were inspired to delve into our open access publishing for examples of research that doesn’t just study communities, but actively involves them. From shaping research questions to guiding implementation, these projects center the voices and experiences of the people at their heart. This commitment to community-led knowledge creation isn’t limited to the articles themselves. It’s reflected in the editorial policies, peer review practices, and team structures that support our journals—ensuring that open access is not just about availability, but about equity and inclusion in research and publishing processes:
Many of our journals, Nucleic Acids Research included, utilise Early Career Boards to ensure their publications are managed in a way that serves the next generation of researchers and provides those earlier in their careers with experience contributing to journal development.
JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute and JNCI Cancer Spectrum are committed to supporting and advancing diversity, equity, and inclusion in editorial practices and published content. Recognizing that many populations have been systematically excluded from scholarly publishing, the journals have several initiatives strengthening diversity.
From participatory research approaches to elder care, to self-determination paths for trans and gender diverse people, to rural ownership of businesses in areas of high tourism, and citizen empowerment during energy transitions – our open access publishing is full of examples of the benefits of including people in the process of generating knowledge about them. All articles included here are published with an open access license, ensuring peer-reviewed, trusted knowledge and diverse voices can reach everyone, anywhere in the world:
As the days get cooler and autumn approaches, it’s the perfect time for a fresh start. Back to school is here. Whether your teen is heading off for another year at college or just beginning the transition, we’ve curated a selection of helpful guides to make the journey smoother. These titles are perfect companions for navigating this exciting new chapter.
Mastering the Transition to College: The Ultimate Guidebook for Parents of Teens With ADHD
Sending a teen off to college is a thrilling milestone, but for parents and caregivers of teens with ADHD, it can also bring unique challenges. Mastering the Transition to College is designed to ease those concerns by offering expert advice, practical strategies, and proven tools to help teens thrive both academically and emotionally during this transition.
College Mental Health 101: A Guide for Students, Parents, and Professionals
College Mental Health 101 offers more answers, relief, resources, and research backed information for families, students, and staff already at college or beginning the application process. With simple charts and facts, informal self-assessments, quick tips for students and those who support them, the book includes hundreds of voices addressing common concerns.
Learn more about College Mental Health 101 by Christopher Willard, Blaise Aguirre, and Chelsie Green
Supporting Your Teen’s Mental Health: Science-Based Parenting Strategies for Repairing Relationships and Helping Young People Thrive
Teen mental health issues are rising at an alarming rate, and many families are unsure of how to best help their children. Supporting Your Teen’s Mental Health is an essential resource for parents and caregivers looking to support teenagers who are struggling with mental health concerns. Written in a conversational tone by psychologist and fellow parent Andrea Temkin-Yu, the workbook is a thorough, evidence-based guide to essential parenting strategies that have been proven to help improve relationships and behavior.
If Your Adolescent Has Autism: An Essential Resource for Parents
While adolescence can be a tough time for parents and their teens, autistic teenagers may face specific challenges and need targeted support from the adults in their lives. The road ahead can be difficult for parents and caregivers, too, especially because the teenage years can involve surprising changes in their child and in society’s expectations of them.
The Parents’ Guide to Psychological First Aid: Helping Children and Adolescents Cope With Predictable Life Crises
Just as parents can expect their children to encounter physical bumps, bruises, and injuries along the road to adulthood, emotional distress is also an unavoidable part of growing up. The sources of this distress range from toddlerhood to young adulthood, from the frustration of toilet training to the uncertainty of leaving home for the first time.
Every September, caregivers and kids alike prepare for one big change: the start of a new school year. As the weeks of summer draw to a close, families are cramming in the last moments of summer fun while simultaneously gearing up for school drops offs and new classroom schedules. While it can be an incredibly exciting time, filled with first day of school outfits and new school gear, it can also be incredibly stressful. This can be particularly true for teenagers who, compared to younger kids, are facing higher academic demands and social pressure while experiencing the major physical and developmental changes that come during adolescence. On top of that, a 2023 Center of Disease Control report showed that teens of today have higher rates of mental health concerns, such as anxiety and depression, and that suicidal thoughts and behaviors are increasing. This can make the return to school daunting for teens, as well as parents who are worried about how their child will manage the transition and demands of the year.
Fortunately, there are several tools that parents and caregivers can use to prepare kids and teens for the first few weeks in September. This includes setting clear expectations, skills to encourage helpful behavior, and strategies that help kids feel supported by their parents.
Setting expectations
While many kids prefer to keep their heads in the sand when it comes to a new academic cycle, it can be incredibly helpful to set expectations for the school year a few weeks in advance. The most basic version of this includes outlining differences between summer versus school schedules, such as changes to sleep and wake times, limits to screens, or daily responsibilities. This preview can help kids’ brains prepare for the upcoming shifts in their daily lives and make the transition a little smoother. It’s also a great idea to talk to kids about how the upcoming school year might be different than the last one. This could include providing information on class size, the structure of the day, or increased expectations. The goal is not to scare your kids about everything coming their way, but rather to provide them with simple clear information in a manner that builds excitement. For example, “It’s so fun that you get to go to go off-campus for lunch this year. I bet it will make the day feel way more interesting!” Or, “I know high school is bigger than middle school. It may feel a little overwhelming, but it’s also such a great time for you to see how capable you are.”
Encouraging positive behaviors
Once expectations have been set, parents can also work to encourage brave or skillful behavior. This may include things like taking more responsibility (e.g., managing their own communication with teachers and coaches), growing outside of their comfort zone (e.g., joining a new club or social circle), or challenging themselves with new opportunities or roles (e.g., a first job or harder courseload). This most effective way to do this is through a skill called “labeled praise.”
Labeled praise is when you show appreciation for a specific behavior or characteristic your child is demonstrating. When it comes to a new school year, parents can look for opportunities to praise preparation, flexibility, and bravery. For example, “I know you really loved your teachers last year, and I appreciate how openminded you are about your new schedule.” Another parent may say, “Great call on getting to bed a little earlier this week. It’ll make the start of school so much easier!” For teens who haven’t mastered brave or skillful choices, parents can offer cheerleading and encouragement. Phrases like “I know you’re going to do a beautiful job making friends because you’ve done it before!” or “10th grade is tough, and I have total confidence that you’re going to find a way to balance everything” send a message that they really believe in their kid. This can go a long way towards encouraging positive behaviors.
Providing validation
When you do notice your child having a hard time, whether it’s nerves, low mood, or difficulty organizing themselves for a new semester, it’s always a great idea to offer validation. Validation is a skill used to show somebody that you can see their perspective or understand where they are coming from. Validation can be a tricky skill to master for caregivers because it is sometimes hard to put yourself in your child’s shoes, or you are eager to get them to see a new perspective. For example, when your child complains about their new math teacher who they have heard is a hard grader, it’s tempting to say “Nah! I’m sure it’ll be fine!” This may work for some kids. However, it can come off as dismissive and hard to believe for a teen whose anxiety or stress is high. Instead, try validation: “It makes sense that you’re nervous based on what you’ve heard!” While you aren’t agreeing with your child’s worries, you are acknowledging them, and that can help increase a sense of connection and communication. Once your child feels understood, they’ll be better able to think clearly about the situation and problem solve as needed.
As you navigate another year of permission slips, homework, and extracurricular activities, remember that you have a handful of tools in your pocket to help ease the way. With a little bit of preparation, encouragement, and support, you and child can start the school year off on a great foot.
Kicking off today, Sun Awareness Week (12-18 May) is the start of the British Association of Dermatologists’ (BAD) summer-long campaign to encourage everyone to protect their skin from sun damage and skin cancer, the most common cancer in the UK.
There are several types of skin cancer, with melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers being the most common. Melanoma develops from melanocytes, cells in deeper layers of the skin that give skin its colour. Non-melanoma skin cancers, such as basal and squamous cell carcinoma, develop from cells known as keratinocytes found in the outer layer of the skin. Simple steps like using sunscreen, avoiding sun in the middle of the day, wearing sun hats, and reducing the amount of direct sun exposure can lower your risk of both.
Recent research from the BAD journals—British Journal of Dermatology, Clinical and Experimental Dermatology, and Skin Health and Disease—offers new insights into preventing, diagnosing, and treating melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers. Here are some highlights:
Why sunscreen matters
Using sunscreen every day is one of the best ways to stay safe. The sun gives off ultraviolet (UV) rays that harm your skin and raise skin cancer risk, and regular use of high-SPF sunscreen can protect you. Sunscreen comes in many forms, like creams, lotions, sprays, and sticks. Apply it 15-30 minutes before going outside. Reapply every 2 hours, or after swimming or intense physical activity.
Sunscreen prevents skin cancer and premature ageing (called photoageing), but it’s good to know the facts. A recent narrative review found possible downsides of using sunscreen, like allergic skin reactions and concerns about endocrine disruption. Some ingredients, like preservatives and fragrances, may cause allergic skin reactions, though evidence suggests these reactions are rare. Concerns about hormone effects are low, as sunscreen stays mostly on the skin’s surface.
Photoageing: a key concern
UV rays don’t just increase skin cancer risk—they also age your skin early, causing wrinkles and spots. A recent survey across 17 countries found that people often worry more about photoageing than skin cancer. So, talking about photoageing in sun awareness campaigns could motivate more people to engage in sun protective behaviours.
A digital sun protection campaign for healthcare workers
Researchers from University of Limerick Hospital Group in Ireland tried a new digital campaign to promote skin cancer awareness among hospital staff. Their study found that staff became more positive about sun protective behaviours after the campaign, showing that digital tools could work for everyone in encouraging sun protection.
Figure from Emma Porter et. al, ‘The Impact of a Novel Digital Sun Protection Campaign on Sun-Related Attitudes and Behaviours of Healthcare Workers: A Prospective Observational Study’, Skin Health and Disease, Volume 4, Issue 6, December 2024, https://doi.org/10.1002/ski2.256
Better sun habits, better outcomes
Campaigns like Sun Awareness Week make a real difference. A study from Austria found that people who improved their sun protection habits after being diagnosed with melanoma lived longer, showing that these behavioural changes can save lives.
Global melanoma trends
A population-level study across 162 countries found that melanoma diagnoses are rising over time, but death rates are steady or growing slowly. This may be related to improved screening and awareness programs for melanoma. However, this may be compounded by melanoma overdiagnosis, with some cases caught early that may not have been deadly. Researchers are still exploring this complex phenomenon.
Melanoma and gender
Men and women face different melanoma risks. This study from Australia found that, on average, women are often diagnosed with melanoma years earlier than men, especially on the torso and for thinner melanomas. Their findings suggest that sex-tailored approaches to melanoma control could improve prevention and care.
Sun safety policy in primary schools
As per the World Health Organization, school sun protection programmes may be the key to skin cancer prevention. This study carried out an online survey of primary schools in Wales to understand their sun safety policies and practices. Of 471 schools that responded, only 183 enforced their policy. Those who did not have a policy were ‘not aware of the need’ (34.6%); ‘need assistance with policy or procedure development’ (30.3%); or ‘not got around to it just yet’ (26.8%).
Skin cancer and blood cancers
This study in the Netherlands found that patients with blood cancers have a higher risk of developing skin cancers across their lifetime. This means that targeted awareness campaigns for sun protection are vital for this patient population.
Diabetes drugs and skin cancer
In this systematic review, the authors found that drugs for type 2 diabetes, especially metformin, may lower risk of non-melanoma skin cancer. This is good news for people with type 2 diabetes who are worried about developing skin cancer.
This Sun Awareness Week, we are urging everyone to prioritise sun protection to prevent skin cancer and premature skin ageing. Check your skin regularly and see a doctor if you notice any new or changing moles or other skin lesions.
Join the #SunAwarenessWeek conversation and share your sun safety tips! You can explore the latest research from the BAD journals here.
